The Evolution of Foreign Policy by the United States in Israel-Palestine and the Middle East

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Introduction: Israel’s Involvement and Regional Dynamics

Since its creation, the state of Israel has been involved in several conflicts between itself, the Palestinians who also shared the land, and the various Islamic states that surround it. Today, alliances with Israel are being called into question due to its conduct over the war in the Gaza Strip. The United States had shifted its focus from merely securing and maintaining the oil rights of itself and its allies to combatting terrorism and extremism.

Finally, to try and get Islamic countries in both the Middle East and North Africa to normalize relations with Israel. To assist with creating peace in the region. Such a feat has been proven difficult as efforts to expand the Abraham Accords, The official name of such. Requires a lengthy level of negotiation as the views of both Israel and its neighbors differ greatly. This is due to the history of how the United States conducted its foreign policy alongside Israel.

Pre-1948: The Foundations and Early Conflicts

Prior to the creation of Israel in 1948, the idea of a Jewish state in the Middle East was seen as unfavorable to King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia, one of the only independent states in the region at the time. At the end of World War I, it was promised that there would be a unified Arab state in the region following the breakup of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, the British Empire had promised a Jewish state in the region, creating an overlapping claim.

Upon the conclusion of the war, the Sykes-Picot Agreement was secretly signed between France and Britain. Drawing lines on a map and dividing the region between the two and the borders of Saudi Arabia. The United States was kept out of this agreement. Leaving no say despite its involvement in the war beginning in 1917 shifting the tides more in favor of the Entente. The territories of Syria and Lebanon were partitioned by France and the territories of Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq were partitioned by Britain.

Oil Politics and the Middle East

The foreign policy at the time was mainly oil focused. As the Turkish Petroleum Company had been in control over the oil of the former borders of the Ottoman Empire. A resource western oil companies wanted to exploit for profit. There were complications however, as France wanted to secure itself a portion of the profits by creating an oil company to rival a group of British and American oil companies referred to as the Seven Sisters. The Seven Sisters included: the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (Exxon), the Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony, later Mobil, which eventually merged with Exxon), the Standard Oil Company of California (Socal, later renamed Chevron), the Texas Oil Company (Texaco), Gulf Oil (which later merged with Chevron), Anglo-Persian (British Petroleum), and Royal Dutch/Shell.

Representatives from four oil companies/entities came together in Belgium to sign what would be known as the Red Line Agreement of 1928. Defining the former borders of the Ottoman Empire and the division of profits. Compagnie Française des Pétroles (CFP, later Total), Anglo-Persian, Royal Dutch/Shell, and the Near East Development Corporation had come to an agreement to split the profits at 23.75% while the remaining 5% went to Calouste Gulbenkian. An Armenian businessman who was a partial stakeholder within the TPC. The former Turkish Petroleum Company had merged into the Near East Development Corporation. An American oil syndicate that included Jersey Standard, Socony, Gulf Oil, the Pan-American Petroleum and Transport Company, and Atlantic Refining (later Arco). This division of resource rights, where no state or territory would see even a tiny fraction of profits, was now the status quo for the Middle East.

Post-WWII Diplomatic Shifts and Oil Agreements

In 1945, towards the end of World War II. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had met with King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia to discuss two things. The allowance of 10,000 Jews to Palestine following the discovery of Auschwitz by the Soviets, and to secure oil-for-security diplomacy. The king was displeased with the idea of allowing Jews to migrate to Palestine. As he believed the Holocaust was a problem created by the Germans and that the idea of a homeland for Jews should be realized in the territories of Germany. What he did agree with was the benefits from such a deal for oil with the United States, however.

Chevron and Texaco had discovered a large amount of oil in the kingdom, and to ensure mineral rights to protect American energy interests a deal was struck to create a pipeline to the Mediterranean. Included in this deal was the development of a military base and the construction of what would blossom into a close relationship between both the two countries, preventing the British from interfering in the kingdom. To this day, the Saudis have worked with the United States on several joint missions, such as working to eradicate Al-Qaeda’s influence post-9/11.

Cold War Era: Regime Changes and Proxy Conflicts

Maintaining deals for oil did not go as smoothly as it did with Saudi Arabia. As the Middle East during the cold war was home to various regime changes by both Western countries. As well as religious or political extremism domestically. The United States and the British wanted to maintain a strong grip on their resource rights. Partnered in several conflicts and events from Operation Ajax. Which saw the overthrow of prime minister Mohammad Mosaddegh of Iran to reinstate Shah Reza Pahlavi’s power and continue Western usage of its oil, to the toppling of dictators unfriendly to the West, and the funding of extremist groups to do some of the work for them. The Mujahideen, for example, were funded to support American interests to contest Soviet influence in Afghanistan.

The War on Terror, the United States’ interventionist plan to combat extremism and terrorism in the Middle East. Arose in response to the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11th. Al-Qaeda had hijacked multiple commercial aircraft and aimed to fly them into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a fourth unknown location. The United States had waged wars and special operations to capture or assassinate terrorist cell leaders. Also to topple Saddam Hussein for allowing terrorist groups to exist in Iraq and for the falsified evidence of developing weapons of mass destruction. And prevent the Taliban from taking control over Afghanistan.

These operations, which were initially widely supported. Proved to be ineffective in ensuring peace in the region because of the rise of newer groups such as the Islamic State (ISIS) and the unpopularity of the United States. Due to its meddling in foreign affairs overtime as Afghanistan became one of America’s longest conflicts in the country’s history.

Israel’s Formation and Regional Conflicts

Israel had also found itself at the center of conflict since the decision by the Attorney General to the United Nations had decided upon the creation of unified Jewish and Palestinian territories in the region of Palestine in 1947. The very existence of a Jewish state in the Middle East angered the Arab states. In 1948, conflict between Israeli and Palestinian militias transformed into an all-out war between Israel and Palestine, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. The conclusion of such was a victory for Israel and created what would be referred to as the pre-1967 borders. In 1956 when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, British, French, and Israeli troops invaded the country to maintain control over the canal. This led to the creation and deployment of the first ever United Nations Peacekeeping Force. Where the three countries would withdraw their troops.

Following the conclusion of the Suez Crisis of 1956. British and French foreign policy in the Middle East had to be approved by the United States as it opposed the excursion. Showcasing the waning influence of both France and Britain. In 1967, the Six-Day war broke out and ended in a staggering defeat by Arab forces. Which had also contained Egyptian, Palestinian, Jordanian, Syrian, and Lebanese forces. This defeat led to a push for a two-state solution in Israel-Palestine. As the new borders incorporated over 1 million Palestinians under Israeli rule. Under United Nations Resolution 242. Israel pulled out of all occupied territories in the surrounding countries in order to try and create a lasting peace.

New Borders and Diplomacy

The new borders of Israel became the basis of which modern Israeli diplomacy came from. The borders have shifted slightly since with the acquisition of the Golan Heights from Syria. Upon the conclusion of the Yom Kippur War. Other forms of Israeli diplomacy stemmed from the Camp David Accords. Which was a meeting held by the United States with Israel and Egypt to discuss normalized relations, garnering success.

The U.S.-Israel Alliance and Diplomatic Relations

Throughout this time, the United States had found an ally in Israel. Since President John F. Kennedy had outlined Israel as having a ‘special relationship’ with the United States. Multiple deals were struck between the two where Israel would receive weapons and funding in exchange for peaceful resolutions in Palestine. Closer relations to serve as a deterrent for the Arab states to refrain from another costly war against the state. And to strengthen ties between two democratic countries outside of NATO.

In Iran, the CIA and Israeli intelligence agency Mossad influenced the Shah of Iran on his policies during his reign. Since President Richard Nixon, Israel has received $3-4 billion annually, totaling to nearly $318 billion overall. Including the provision of modern weaponry. Many resolutions were also agreed upon concerning Israel’s control and influence over the Palestinian territories and later the Palestinian Authority. But to limited success as Israel has refused to acknowledge a state in Palestine.

The Two-State Solution and Current Challenges

One final piece of Israeli diplomacy is based around the two-state solution of Israel and Palestine. This is one that is continuously difficult due to the extremely complex issues concerning where borders can and should be drawn and whether Palestine should be a recognized state internationally. Terrorist groups such as Hamas even further complicate relations. As the ongoing war in Gaza rages on amidst a hostage crisis. The conduct with which Israel has followed in the war in Gaza has been found to violate several international laws and continues to make expanding the Abraham Accords difficult as well. The Abraham Accords is the current foreign policy of the United States to foster normalized relations with Israel and Arab/Islamic states throughout the Middle East and North Africa.

Currently, Israel has normalized relations with Egypt and Jordan outside of the accords, and within the accords it has normalized relations with Morocco, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain. These normalized relations are meant to spur a lasting peace in the region. Leaving states like Iran with no choice but to cease its influence on using proxy groups to attack Israel. The United States has sought after Saudi Arabia to become the next signatory. But the Saudis have recently updated their terms to come to the agreement to include a recognized Palestinian state. Only time will tell whether or not Palestine could be a recognized state in the future. As it all depends on whether Israel could agree on such a decision.

Conclusion: Evolving U.S.-Middle East Relations

The United States, Israel, and the Middle East have a very unique and complex history together. The United States has recognized its shortcomings. In the ways in which it has conducted its foreign policy in the region. By shifting the focus from a more militaristic and interventionist policy to one focused on trying to bring about lasting peace more diplomatically.

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